diff --git a/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/prompts/manager.py b/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/prompts/manager.py
index 6d032c73a0..2b8045ecf3 100644
--- a/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/prompts/manager.py
+++ b/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/prompts/manager.py
@@ -6,6 +6,8 @@
 
 from mcp.server.fastmcp.prompts.base import Message, Prompt
 from mcp.server.fastmcp.utilities.logging import get_logger
+from mcp.shared.exceptions import McpError
+from mcp.types import INVALID_PARAMS, ErrorData
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from mcp.server.fastmcp.server import Context
@@ -55,6 +57,7 @@ async def render_prompt(
         """Render a prompt by name with arguments."""
         prompt = self.get_prompt(name)
         if not prompt:
-            raise ValueError(f"Unknown prompt: {name}")
+            # Unknown prompt is a protocol error per MCP spec
+            raise McpError(ErrorData(code=INVALID_PARAMS, message=f"Unknown prompt: {name}"))
 
         return await prompt.render(arguments, context=context)
diff --git a/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/resources/resource_manager.py b/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/resources/resource_manager.py
index 20f67bbe42..223988a18d 100644
--- a/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/resources/resource_manager.py
+++ b/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/resources/resource_manager.py
@@ -10,7 +10,8 @@
 from mcp.server.fastmcp.resources.base import Resource
 from mcp.server.fastmcp.resources.templates import ResourceTemplate
 from mcp.server.fastmcp.utilities.logging import get_logger
-from mcp.types import Annotations, Icon
+from mcp.shared.exceptions import McpError
+from mcp.types import RESOURCE_NOT_FOUND, Annotations, ErrorData, Icon
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from mcp.server.fastmcp.server import Context
@@ -85,8 +86,12 @@ async def get_resource(
         self,
         uri: AnyUrl | str,
         context: Context[ServerSessionT, LifespanContextT, RequestT] | None = None,
-    ) -> Resource | None:
-        """Get resource by URI, checking concrete resources first, then templates."""
+    ) -> Resource:
+        """Get resource by URI, checking concrete resources first, then templates.
+
+        Raises:
+            McpError: If the resource is not found (RESOURCE_NOT_FOUND error code).
+        """
         uri_str = str(uri)
         logger.debug("Getting resource", extra={"uri": uri_str})
 
@@ -102,7 +107,8 @@ async def get_resource(
                 except Exception as e:  # pragma: no cover
                     raise ValueError(f"Error creating resource from template: {e}")
 
-        raise ValueError(f"Unknown resource: {uri}")
+        # Resource not found is a protocol error per MCP spec
+        raise McpError(ErrorData(code=RESOURCE_NOT_FOUND, message=f"Unknown resource: {uri}"))
 
     def list_resources(self) -> list[Resource]:
         """List all registered resources."""
diff --git a/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/server.py b/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/server.py
index d0a550280e..56662a0097 100644
--- a/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/server.py
+++ b/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/server.py
@@ -44,7 +44,16 @@
 from mcp.server.streamable_http_manager import StreamableHTTPSessionManager
 from mcp.server.transport_security import TransportSecuritySettings
 from mcp.shared.context import LifespanContextT, RequestContext, RequestT
-from mcp.types import Annotations, ContentBlock, GetPromptResult, Icon, ToolAnnotations
+from mcp.shared.exceptions import McpError
+from mcp.types import (
+    INVALID_PARAMS,
+    Annotations,
+    ContentBlock,
+    ErrorData,
+    GetPromptResult,
+    Icon,
+    ToolAnnotations,
+)
 from mcp.types import Prompt as MCPPrompt
 from mcp.types import PromptArgument as MCPPromptArgument
 from mcp.types import Resource as MCPResource
@@ -964,7 +973,7 @@ async def get_prompt(self, name: str, arguments: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -
         try:
             prompt = self._prompt_manager.get_prompt(name)
             if not prompt:
-                raise ValueError(f"Unknown prompt: {name}")
+                raise McpError(ErrorData(code=INVALID_PARAMS, message=f"Unknown prompt: {name}"))
 
             messages = await prompt.render(arguments, context=self.get_context())
 
@@ -972,6 +981,8 @@ async def get_prompt(self, name: str, arguments: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -
                 description=prompt.description,
                 messages=pydantic_core.to_jsonable_python(messages),
             )
+        except McpError:
+            raise
         except Exception as e:
             logger.exception(f"Error getting prompt {name}")
             raise ValueError(str(e))
diff --git a/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/tools/tool_manager.py b/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/tools/tool_manager.py
index 0d3d9d52a4..b420c3a544 100644
--- a/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/tools/tool_manager.py
+++ b/src/mcp/server/fastmcp/tools/tool_manager.py
@@ -7,7 +7,8 @@
 from mcp.server.fastmcp.tools.base import Tool
 from mcp.server.fastmcp.utilities.logging import get_logger
 from mcp.shared.context import LifespanContextT, RequestT
-from mcp.types import Icon, ToolAnnotations
+from mcp.shared.exceptions import McpError
+from mcp.types import INVALID_PARAMS, ErrorData, Icon, ToolAnnotations
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from mcp.server.fastmcp.server import Context
@@ -88,6 +89,7 @@ async def call_tool(
         """Call a tool by name with arguments."""
         tool = self.get_tool(name)
         if not tool:
-            raise ToolError(f"Unknown tool: {name}")
+            # Unknown tool is a protocol error per MCP spec
+            raise McpError(ErrorData(code=INVALID_PARAMS, message=f"Unknown tool: {name}"))
 
         return await tool.run(arguments, context=context, convert_result=convert_result)
diff --git a/src/mcp/server/lowlevel/server.py b/src/mcp/server/lowlevel/server.py
index 6bea4126ff..3a0d119e01 100644
--- a/src/mcp/server/lowlevel/server.py
+++ b/src/mcp/server/lowlevel/server.py
@@ -600,6 +600,10 @@ async def handler(req: types.CallToolRequest):
                     # Re-raise UrlElicitationRequiredError so it can be properly handled
                     # by _handle_request, which converts it to an error response with code -32042
                     raise
+                except McpError:
+                    # Re-raise McpError as protocol error
+                    # (e.g., unknown tool returns INVALID_PARAMS per MCP spec)
+                    raise
                 except Exception as e:
                     return self._make_error_result(str(e))
 
diff --git a/src/mcp/types/__init__.py b/src/mcp/types/__init__.py
index 00bf839923..6ec03634d9 100644
--- a/src/mcp/types/__init__.py
+++ b/src/mcp/types/__init__.py
@@ -192,6 +192,7 @@
     METHOD_NOT_FOUND,
     PARSE_ERROR,
     REQUEST_TIMEOUT,
+    RESOURCE_NOT_FOUND,
     URL_ELICITATION_REQUIRED,
     ErrorData,
     JSONRPCError,
@@ -404,6 +405,7 @@
     "METHOD_NOT_FOUND",
     "PARSE_ERROR",
     "REQUEST_TIMEOUT",
+    "RESOURCE_NOT_FOUND",
     "URL_ELICITATION_REQUIRED",
     "ErrorData",
     "JSONRPCError",
diff --git a/src/mcp/types/jsonrpc.py b/src/mcp/types/jsonrpc.py
index 86066d80dc..379ad077e3 100644
--- a/src/mcp/types/jsonrpc.py
+++ b/src/mcp/types/jsonrpc.py
@@ -43,6 +43,8 @@ class JSONRPCResponse(BaseModel):
 # SDK error codes
 CONNECTION_CLOSED = -32000
 REQUEST_TIMEOUT = -32001
+RESOURCE_NOT_FOUND = -32002
+"""Error code indicating that a requested resource was not found."""
 
 # Standard JSON-RPC error codes
 PARSE_ERROR = -32700
diff --git a/tests/issues/test_141_resource_templates.py b/tests/issues/test_141_resource_templates.py
index be99e75837..1f6e723f63 100644
--- a/tests/issues/test_141_resource_templates.py
+++ b/tests/issues/test_141_resource_templates.py
@@ -2,7 +2,9 @@
 
 from mcp import Client
 from mcp.server.fastmcp import FastMCP
+from mcp.shared.exceptions import McpError
 from mcp.types import (
+    RESOURCE_NOT_FOUND,
     ListResourceTemplatesResult,
     TextResourceContents,
 )
@@ -53,12 +55,14 @@ def get_user_profile_missing(user_id: str) -> str:  # pragma: no cover
     assert result_list[0].content == "Post 456 by user 123"
     assert result_list[0].mime_type == "text/plain"
 
-    # Verify invalid parameters raise error
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Unknown resource"):
+    # Verify invalid parameters raise protocol error
+    with pytest.raises(McpError, match="Unknown resource") as exc_info:
         await mcp.read_resource("resource://users/123/posts")  # Missing post_id
+    assert exc_info.value.error.code == RESOURCE_NOT_FOUND
 
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Unknown resource"):
+    with pytest.raises(McpError, match="Unknown resource") as exc_info:
         await mcp.read_resource("resource://users/123/posts/456/extra")  # Extra path component
+    assert exc_info.value.error.code == RESOURCE_NOT_FOUND
 
 
 @pytest.mark.anyio
diff --git a/tests/server/fastmcp/prompts/test_manager.py b/tests/server/fastmcp/prompts/test_manager.py
index 950ffddd1a..df31ceebb9 100644
--- a/tests/server/fastmcp/prompts/test_manager.py
+++ b/tests/server/fastmcp/prompts/test_manager.py
@@ -2,6 +2,8 @@
 
 from mcp.server.fastmcp.prompts.base import Prompt, TextContent, UserMessage
 from mcp.server.fastmcp.prompts.manager import PromptManager
+from mcp.shared.exceptions import McpError
+from mcp.types import INVALID_PARAMS
 
 
 class TestPromptManager:
@@ -89,10 +91,11 @@ def fn(name: str) -> str:
 
     @pytest.mark.anyio
     async def test_render_unknown_prompt(self):
-        """Test rendering a non-existent prompt."""
+        """Test rendering a non-existent prompt raises protocol error."""
         manager = PromptManager()
-        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Unknown prompt: unknown"):
+        with pytest.raises(McpError, match="Unknown prompt: unknown") as exc_info:
             await manager.render_prompt("unknown")
+        assert exc_info.value.error.code == INVALID_PARAMS
 
     @pytest.mark.anyio
     async def test_render_prompt_with_missing_args(self):
diff --git a/tests/server/fastmcp/resources/test_resource_manager.py b/tests/server/fastmcp/resources/test_resource_manager.py
index 5fd4bc8529..8674329100 100644
--- a/tests/server/fastmcp/resources/test_resource_manager.py
+++ b/tests/server/fastmcp/resources/test_resource_manager.py
@@ -5,6 +5,8 @@
 from pydantic import AnyUrl
 
 from mcp.server.fastmcp.resources import FileResource, FunctionResource, ResourceManager, ResourceTemplate
+from mcp.shared.exceptions import McpError
+from mcp.types import RESOURCE_NOT_FOUND
 
 
 @pytest.fixture
@@ -111,10 +113,11 @@ def greet(name: str) -> str:
 
     @pytest.mark.anyio
     async def test_get_unknown_resource(self):
-        """Test getting a non-existent resource."""
+        """Test getting a non-existent resource raises protocol error."""
         manager = ResourceManager()
-        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Unknown resource"):
+        with pytest.raises(McpError, match="Unknown resource") as exc_info:
             await manager.get_resource(AnyUrl("unknown://test"))
+        assert exc_info.value.error.code == RESOURCE_NOT_FOUND
 
     def test_list_resources(self, temp_file: Path):
         """Test listing all resources."""
diff --git a/tests/server/fastmcp/test_server.py b/tests/server/fastmcp/test_server.py
index 6d1cee58ef..40b2801b98 100644
--- a/tests/server/fastmcp/test_server.py
+++ b/tests/server/fastmcp/test_server.py
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@
 from mcp.server.transport_security import TransportSecuritySettings
 from mcp.shared.exceptions import McpError
 from mcp.types import (
+    INVALID_PARAMS,
     AudioContent,
     BlobResourceContents,
     ContentBlock,
@@ -239,8 +240,8 @@ async def test_call_tool(self):
         mcp = FastMCP()
         mcp.add_tool(tool_fn)
         async with Client(mcp) as client:
-            result = await client.call_tool("my_tool", {"arg1": "value"})
-            assert not hasattr(result, "error")
+            result = await client.call_tool("tool_fn", {"x": 1, "y": 2})
+            assert not result.is_error
             assert len(result.content) > 0
 
     @pytest.mark.anyio
@@ -664,7 +665,7 @@ async def test_remove_tool_and_list(self):
 
     @pytest.mark.anyio
     async def test_remove_tool_and_call(self):
-        """Test that calling a removed tool fails appropriately."""
+        """Test that calling a removed tool raises a protocol error."""
         mcp = FastMCP()
         mcp.add_tool(tool_fn)
 
@@ -679,13 +680,12 @@ async def test_remove_tool_and_call(self):
         # Remove the tool
         mcp.remove_tool("tool_fn")
 
-        # Verify calling removed tool returns an error
+        # Verify calling removed tool raises a protocol error (per MCP spec)
         async with Client(mcp) as client:
-            result = await client.call_tool("tool_fn", {"x": 1, "y": 2})
-            assert result.is_error
-            content = result.content[0]
-            assert isinstance(content, TextContent)
-            assert "Unknown tool" in content.text
+            with pytest.raises(McpError) as exc_info:
+                await client.call_tool("tool_fn", {"x": 1, "y": 2})
+            assert "Unknown tool" in str(exc_info.value)
+            assert exc_info.value.error.code == INVALID_PARAMS
 
 
 class TestServerResources:
diff --git a/tests/server/fastmcp/test_tool_manager.py b/tests/server/fastmcp/test_tool_manager.py
index b09ae7de15..214ad65d95 100644
--- a/tests/server/fastmcp/test_tool_manager.py
+++ b/tests/server/fastmcp/test_tool_manager.py
@@ -12,7 +12,8 @@
 from mcp.server.fastmcp.utilities.func_metadata import ArgModelBase, FuncMetadata
 from mcp.server.session import ServerSessionT
 from mcp.shared.context import LifespanContextT, RequestT
-from mcp.types import TextContent, ToolAnnotations
+from mcp.shared.exceptions import McpError
+from mcp.types import INVALID_PARAMS, TextContent, ToolAnnotations
 
 
 class TestAddTools:
@@ -255,8 +256,10 @@ def sum(a: int, b: int) -> int:  # pragma: no cover
     @pytest.mark.anyio
     async def test_call_unknown_tool(self):
         manager = ToolManager()
-        with pytest.raises(ToolError):
+        # Unknown tool raises McpError (protocol error) per MCP spec
+        with pytest.raises(McpError, match="Unknown tool: unknown") as exc_info:
             await manager.call_tool("unknown", {"a": 1})
+        assert exc_info.value.error.code == INVALID_PARAMS
 
     @pytest.mark.anyio
     async def test_call_tool_with_list_int_input(self):
@@ -893,9 +896,10 @@ def greet(name: str) -> str:  # pragma: no cover
         # Remove the tool
         manager.remove_tool("greet")
 
-        # Verify calling removed tool raises error
-        with pytest.raises(ToolError, match="Unknown tool: greet"):
+        # Verify calling removed tool raises McpError (protocol error per MCP spec)
+        with pytest.raises(McpError, match="Unknown tool: greet") as exc_info:
             await manager.call_tool("greet", {"name": "World"})
+        assert exc_info.value.error.code == INVALID_PARAMS
 
     def test_remove_tool_case_sensitive(self):
         """Test that tool removal is case-sensitive."""
diff --git a/tests/shared/test_streamable_http.py b/tests/shared/test_streamable_http.py
index ed86f9860e..54f698d492 100644
--- a/tests/shared/test_streamable_http.py
+++ b/tests/shared/test_streamable_http.py
@@ -48,6 +48,8 @@
 from mcp.shared.message import ClientMessageMetadata, ServerMessageMetadata, SessionMessage
 from mcp.shared.session import RequestResponder
 from mcp.types import (
+    RESOURCE_NOT_FOUND,
+    ErrorData,
     InitializeResult,
     JSONRPCRequest,
     TextContent,
@@ -145,7 +147,7 @@ async def handle_read_resource(uri: str) -> str | bytes:
                 await anyio.sleep(2.0)
                 return f"Slow response from {parsed.netloc}"
 
-            raise ValueError(f"Unknown resource: {uri}")
+            raise McpError(ErrorData(code=RESOURCE_NOT_FOUND, message=f"Unknown resource: {uri}"))
 
         @self.list_tools()
         async def handle_list_tools() -> list[Tool]:
@@ -1034,7 +1036,7 @@ async def test_streamable_http_client_error_handling(initialized_client_session:
     """Test error handling in client."""
     with pytest.raises(McpError) as exc_info:
         await initialized_client_session.read_resource(uri="unknown://test-error")
-    assert exc_info.value.error.code == 0
+    assert exc_info.value.error.code == RESOURCE_NOT_FOUND
     assert "Unknown resource: unknown://test-error" in exc_info.value.error.message